Linking Words/ Conjunctions

 Linking Words/ Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases, or clauses together.

Kinds of conjunctions

Conjunctions or Linking Words are divided into two classes: coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.

Read the following sentence:

Birds fly and fish swim.

This sentence contains two independent statements or two statements of equal rank or importance. The conjunction that joins together two clauses of equal rank is called a coordinating conjunction.

Notes

Coordinating conjunctions generally connect sentence elements of the same grammatical class. Examples: nouns with nouns, adverbs with adverbs, phrases with phrases and clauses with clauses.

Jack and Jill went up the hill. (Here the coordinating conjunction and connects two nouns.) He worked diligently and patiently. (Here the coordinating conjunction and connects two adverbs.)

The chief coordinating conjunctions are: and, but, for, or, nor, also, either…or, neither…nor.

Kinds of coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are of four kinds.

Cumulative or copulative conjunctions

 Adversative conjunctions 

Disjunctive or alternative conjunctions

 Illative conjunctions

Cumulative conjunctions

Cumulative conjunctions merely add one statement to another. Examples are: and, both…and, as well as, not only…but also.

Alice wrote the letters and Peter posted them. 

The cow got up and walked away slowly.

Adversative conjunctions

Adversative conjunctions express contrast between two statements. Examples are: but, still, yet, whereas, while, nevertheless etc.

The rope was thin but it was strong. 

She is poor but she is happy. 

He is hardworking whereas his brother is quite the reverse.

Disjunctive or alternative conjunctions

Conjunctions which present two alternatives are called disjunctive or alternative conjunctions. Examples are: or, either…or, neither…nor, neither, nor, otherwise, else etc.

She must weep, or she will die. 

Either he is mad, or he feigns madness. 

They toil not, neither do they spin. 

Neither a borrower, nor a lender be.

Illative conjunctions

Some coordinating conjunctions express something inferred from another statement or fact. These are called illative conjunctions. Examples are: for and so.

Somebody came, for I heard a knock at the door. 

He must be asleep, for there is no light in his room. 

He has been working hard, so he will pass.

Practice Exercice

• Would you rather have cheese _____ bologna on your sandwich?

• His two favourite sports are football ______ tennis.

• I wanted to go to the beach, _______ Mary refused.

• I am allergic to cats, ______ I have three of them.

• I am a vegetarian, _______ I don’t eat any meat.

• Thomas will be late to work, _____ he has a dental appointment.

• Jennifer does not like to swim, ____ does she enjoy cycling.

• Jackson wanted to eat another piece of cake, ____ he was on a diet.

Subordinating Conjunctions

• Subordinating conjunctions can be found in sentences containing two clauses: an independent or main clause and a dependent clause.

• They must come at the beginning of a dependent clause.

• Subordinators help lend meaning to a sentence by linking two ideas. Time, concession, comparison, cause, condition, and place are the types of subordinating conjunctions, categorized by meaning.

• In most sentences, as long as the subordinating conjunction precedes the dependent clause, clause order does not matter.

Subordinating conjunctions are also known as subordinators, subordinate conjunctions, and complementizers. Many subordinators are single words such as because, before, and when, but some subordinating conjunctions consist of more than one word such as even though, as long as, and except that.

Semantic Categories of Subordinating Conjunctions

As demonstrated, conjunctions can bring different layers of meaning to writing by building relationships between clauses. There are six main classes of conjunctions, categorized by meaning: time, concession, comparison, cause, condition, and place.

Time

Time-related conjunctions establish a period when the main clause will be or was performed. These include after, as soon as, as long as, before, once, still, until, when, whenever, and while. For example, "I will do the dishes after everyone has gone home" might be stated by a hostess who prefers to enjoy her guests' company while they are there.

Concession

Concession conjunctions help to redefine the main clause by providing additional context regarding conditions of delivery. Concession conjunctions highlight an action that took place in spite of an obstacle or hindrance and they include although, as though, and even though. An example would be, "Eliza wrote the Higgins report even though it was assigned to Colonel Pickering."

Comparison

Similarly, comparison conjunctions—which include just as, though, whereas, in contrast to, and while—help to establish correlations by providing context for comparison. "Ellen vlogged about the results of the political meeting, in contrast to her arch-enemy who merely blogged."

Cause

Cause conjunctions illuminate the reason(s) that the activities of a main clause were performed and are commonly engineered using as, because, in order that, since, and so that. "Grant dreamed about cheese because he had eaten so much of it the night before."

Condition

Condition conjunctions introduce rules under which a main clause performs. These are indicated by even if, if, in case, provided that, and unless. "If he's going to be there, I'm not going to the party." Often, subordinate clauses come first in conditional sentences but they are still dependent on the main clause and cannot exist outside of it.

Place

Place conjunctions, which determine where activities might occur, include where, wherever, and whereas. "I will place my conjunction in the sentence wherever I please."

Examples of Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are not hard to find when you know where to look for them. Use these quotes to get started.

• "Mr. Bennet was so odd a mixture of quick parts, sarcastic humor, reserve, and caprice, that the experience of three-and-twenty years had been insufficient to make his wife understand his character." -Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice

• "I am always doing that which I can not do, in order that I may learn how to do it." -Pablo Picasso

• "If you want to change the world, start with yourself." -Mahatma Gahndi

• "When life gives you lemons, make lemonade." –Anonymous

 

 

Practice Exercises

• I will help the man. He deserves it.

• Mary came up. We were talking about her.

• I admire Mr. Brown. He is my enemy.

• I came. You sent for me.

• Evelyn will come to school. She is able.

• He knows he is wrong. He will not admit it.

• The man is rich. He is unhappy.

• The Mexican War came on. Polk was president.

• I shall come tomorrow. You sent for me.

• You wish to be believed. You must tell the truth.

• The dog bites. He ought to be muzzled.

• It would be foolish to set out. It is raining.

• Call me at my office. You happen to be in town.

• The cat ran up a tree. She was chased by a dog.

• The sun shines brightly. It is very cold.

 

Introduction to programming languages

 Introduction to programming languages

A program is a set of instructions that tells a computer what to do in order to come up with the solution of a particular problem 

Programs are written using a programming language 

A programing language is a formal language designed to communicate instructions to the computer 

There are two major types of programming languages  

Low level programming language and high level programming language

1. Low level languages :- 

Low level programming languages are referred as low level because these are very close to the machine 

Like as different hardware elements of a computer actually communicate with each other 

Low level languages are machine oriented language 

To communicate with the machine in a low level programming language it is require extensive knowledge of computer hardware and its configuration 

The low level programming language is further categorised in two categories one is machine language and another is assembly language

• Machine language : machine language or machine code is the only language that is directly understood by the computer 

And it does not need to be translated to any other language 

All instructions use binary notation and are written as a string of 1’s and 0’s 

A program in a mechie code may look like “100111100010”

It is very difficult to understand such binary notations 

That’s why the assembly languages are introduce 

• Assembly language : an assembly language is the very first step to improve programming structure and make machine language more readable by humans 

An assembly language consists of a set of symbols and letters 

A translator is required to translate the assembly language to machine language called the ‘assembler’ 

Assembly language are easier than machine code but still it is pretty difficult to understand 

That’s why high level languages are developed 

2. High level languages :-

A high level programming language consists of english as well as mathematical symbols o give instruction to the computer 

High level programming languages are most often used by the programmers to communicate with the computer 

Some examples of high level programming languages are C++, fortran, java and python. 

While learning any language we first needs to learn grammar and the vocabulary so that we can easily make sentences 

Same as any other language we first needs to understand grammar and vocabulary part of a programming language hear in a programming language we need to learn commands, syntax 

And logic which corresponds closely to the vocabulary and grammar of any other languages

The code of most high level programming language is portable also the same code can run on different hardware platforms without any modification in the programme 

Both machine code as well as assembly languages are hardware specific languages which means that the machine code used to run a program on one specific computer needs to be modified to run on another computer 

Also we need to know hear that the computer cannot understand high level programming language directly that’s why it needs a translator which converts high level programming language into machine code 

There are two ways by which we can convert high level programming language into machine code and they are related to how the program is executed ,a compiler or interpreter is used to translate high level programming language into a machine code 

Compiler :- A compiler is a computer program which translates a program written in a high level language to the machine code 

The high level program is referred to as the source code 

The compiler is used to translate source code into machine code or compiled code 

This does not yet use any of the input data when the compiled code is executed, at that time it is referred as running the program 

The program processes the input data to produce the desired output 

Interpreter :- An interpreter is a computer program that directly executes instructions written in a programming language without requiring them previously to have been compiled into a machine language program 

Introducing to the C++ (A high level programming language) :- 

C++ is a cross platform language that can be used to create high performance application 

It is one of oldest as well as very popular language 

It was developed by Bjarne stroustrup as an extension to the C language to make this more efficient than the previous one 

As it is the most popular language it is present in the core of many popular operating systems

Also it is present in graphical user interfaces and in embedded systems

C++ is an object oriented programming language which gives a clear structure to programs and allows code to be reused and lowers the development coast 

C++ is a user friendly language and also it is easy to learn 

It also provides portability means the program written on one platform is able to run on multiple different platforms 

A c++ is very close to the other languages such as C# and Java which makes easy for programmer to switch easily on other languages 

Source :-https://drive.google.com/file/d/1nq4T...

 

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BY :- ADARSH GUPTA

  

Paragraphs & Topic Sentences

 Paragraphs & Topic Sentences

A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all related to a single topic. Almost every piece of writing you do that is longer than a few sentences should be organized into paragraphs. This is because paragraphs show a reader where the subdivisions of an essay begin and end, and thus help the reader see the organization of the essay and grasp its main points.

Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A paragraph could contain a series of brief examples or a single long illustration of a general point. It might describe a place, character, or process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast two or more things; classify items into categories; or describe causes and effects. Regardless of the kind of information they contain, all paragraphs share certain characteristics. One of the most important of these is a topic sentence.

TOPIC SENTENCES

A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a single controlling idea, which is expressed in a sentence called the topic sentence. A topic sentence has several important functions: it substantiates or supports an essay’s thesis statement; it unifies the content of a paragraph and directs the order of the sentences; and it advises the reader of the subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will discuss it. Readers generally look to the first few sentences in a paragraph to determine the subject and perspective of the paragraph. That’s why it’s often best to put the topic sentence at the very beginning of the paragraph. In some cases, however, it’s more effective to place another sentence before the topic sentence—for example, a sentence linking the current paragraph to the previous one, or one providing background information.

Although most paragraphs should have a topic sentence, there are a few situations when a paragraph might not need a topic sentence. For example, you might be able to omit a topic sentence in a paragraph that narrates a series of events, if a paragraph continues developing an idea that you introduced (with a topic sentence) in the previous paragraph, or if all the sentences and details in a paragraph clearly refer—perhaps indirectly—to a main point. The vast majority of your paragraphs, however, should have a topic sentence.

PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure—introduction, body, and conclusion. You can see this structure in paragraphs whether they are narrating, describing, comparing, contrasting, or analyzing information. Each part of the paragraph plays an important role in communicating your meaning to your reader.

Introduction: the first section of a paragraph; should include the topic sentence and any other sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that give background information or provide a transition.

Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts, arguments, analysis, examples, and other information.

Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections between the information discussed in the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea.

The following paragraph illustrates this pattern of organization. In this paragraph the topic sentence and concluding sentence (CAPITALIZED) both help the reader keep the paragraph’s main point in mind.

SCIENTISTS HAVE LEARNED TO SUPPLEMENT THE SENSE OF SIGHT IN NUMEROUS WAYS. In front of the tiny pupil of the eye they put, on Mount Palomar, a great monocle 200 inches in diameter, and with it see 2000 times farther into the depths of space. Or they look through a small pair of lenses arranged as a microscope into a drop of water or blood, and magnify by as much as 2000 diameters the living creatures there, many of which are among man’s most dangerous enemies. Or, if we want to see distant happenings on earth, they use some of the previously wasted electromagnetic waves to carry television images which they re-create as light by whipping tiny crystals on a screen with electrons in a vacuum. Or they can bring happenings of long ago and far away as colored motion pictures, by arranging silver atoms and color-absorbing molecules to force light waves into the patterns of original reality. Or if we want to see into the center of a steel casting or the chest of an injured child, they send the information on a beam of penetrating short-wave X rays, and then convert it back into images we can see on a screen or photograph. THUS ALMOST EVERY TYPE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION YET DISCOVERED HAS BEEN USED TO EXTEND OUR SENSE OF SIGHT IN SOME WAY.

George Harrison, “Faith and the Scientist”

COHERENCE

In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence or controlling idea, but there is more to coherence than this. If a paragraph is coherent, each sentence flows smoothly into the next without obvious shifts or jumps. A coherent paragraph also highlights the ties between old information and new information to make the structure of ideas or arguments clear to the reader.

Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraph’s coherence may also be related to its length. If you have written a very long paragraph, one that fills a double-spaced typed page, for example, you should check it carefully to see if it should start a new paragraph where the original paragraph wanders from its controlling idea. On the other hand, if a paragraph is very short (only one or two sentences, perhaps), you may need to develop its controlling idea more thoroughly, or combine it with another paragraph.

A number of other techniques that you can use to establish coherence in paragraphs are described below.

Repeat key words or phrases. Particularly in paragraphs in which you define or identify an important idea or theory, be consistent in how you refer to it. This consistency and repetition will bind the paragraph together and help your reader understand your definition or description.

Create parallel structures. Parallel structures are created by constructing two or more phrases or sentences that have the same grammatical structure and use the same parts of speech. By creating parallel structures you make your sentences clearer and easier to read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a series of consecutive sentences helps your reader see the connections between ideas. In the paragraph above about scientists and the sense of sight, several sentences in the body of the paragraph have been constructed in a parallel way. The parallel structures (which have been emphasized) help the reader see that the paragraph is organized as a set of examples of a general statement.

Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number. Consistency in point of view, verb tense, and number is a subtle but important aspect of coherence. If you shift from the more personal "you" to the impersonal “one,” from past to present tense, or from “a man” to “they,” for example, you make your paragraph less coherent. Such inconsistencies can also confuse your reader and make your argument more difficult to follow.

Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between paragraphs. Transitional expressions emphasize the relationships between ideas, so they help readers follow your train of thought or see connections that they might otherwise miss or misunderstand. The following paragraph shows how carefully chosen transitions (CAPITALIZED) lead the reader smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion of the paragraph.

I don’t wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied "stegosaurus" houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective, BUT I do wish to assert that we should not expect more of the beast. FIRST OF ALL, large animals have relatively smaller brains than related, small animals. The correlation of brain size with body size among kindred animals (all reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is remarkably regular. AS we move from small to large animals, from mice to elephants or small lizards to Komodo dragons, brain size increases, BUT not so fast as body size. IN OTHER WORDS, bodies grow faster than brains, AND large animals have low ratios of brain weight to body weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about two-thirds as fast as bodies. SINCE we have no reason to believe that large animals are consistently stupider than their smaller relatives, we must conclude that large animals require relatively less brain to do as well as smaller animals. IF we do not recognize this relationship, we are likely to underestimate the mental power of very large animals, dinosaurs in particular.

Stephen Jay Gould, “Were Dinosaurs Dumb?”

SOME USEFUL TRANSITIONS

(modified from Diana Hacker,A Writer’s Reference)

To show addition:

again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.), further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover, next, too

To give examples:

for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate

To compare:

also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly

To contrast:

although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though, however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, though, yet

To summarize or conclude:

all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up

To show time:

after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during, earlier, finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly, subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when, while

To show place or direction:

above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, opposite, to the left (north, etc.)

To indicate logical relationship:

accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus